The Virtuous City | Karl Becker

The book addresses one idea, thoroughly discussing it: the comparison between the thought of 13th-century philosophers and their peers — or rather their enemies — from 18th-century philosophers, in terms of metaphysics, the origins of the universe, the destiny of humans, the meaning of their existence, the value of their efforts, and the impact of all that on ethics and the possibility of reaching the perfect city. The 13th-century thought, based on theology, Christian religion, and the dominance of the church and state, versus the 18th-century thought derived from reason, scientific discoveries, and understanding the universe in a purely physical way, and understanding humans in a neutral evolutionary manner, and the subsequent denial of religion and its advocates, and the atheism and denial of moral philosophy resulting from following reason. Many of its philosophers were unable to build a meaningful and significant moral world, or to interpret the meanings of good and evil, and some concealed the atheistic outcome of their ideas out of fear of societal criticism, resorting to historical research as a substitute for theological research to achieve these goals, which was generally unsuccessful.